51 BROOCHES TELL TALES: BRITISH-MADE BROOCHES IN GERMANIA INFERIOR AND SUPERIOR AS INDICATORS OF THE PRESENCE OF BRITISH EMIGRANTS Tatiana Ivleva “The main intention of this paper is to suggest that brooches can be looked at in new ways, to provide a fuller and, possibly, different perspective on social change”. Thus begins an article by Jundi and Hill (1997: 125) on the change of the roles of brooches in Late Iron Age and early Roman Britain. It neatly summarizes the main intention of the present paper, which follows the idea proposed by the same authors that “brooches are more than meets the eye”. Take any major archaeological report on Roman sites and it will be obvious that the majority of the illustrated pages are given over to the publication of pottery found on a site, followed by a broad discussion on the significance of these finds. Brooches, by contrast, are usually given two or three illustrated pages, followed by a brief summary of the types. The majority of the excavators regard the brooches as relatively simple objects: a mere dress accessory, essential for fastening clothes (Croom 2002: 73). While this is true, one must realize that brooches were not only used for holding clothes together, but were also used to send different types of messages, containing information on “ethnicity, age, gender and group membership” (Jundi and Hill 1997: 125). In other words, being personal items, brooches were worn to be seen; they conveyed meaning and sent signals about the owners (Jundi and Hill 1998: 132). This makes the purpose of the present paper to decipher these very signals, to give brooches an opportunity to tell their tales. As a case study, British-made brooches found overseas, mainly in the two neighbouring provinces of Germania Inferior and Superior, were selected. The reason behind the choice of British-made brooches lies in the PhD research conducted by the author of the present paper, which aims to find British emigrants who moved overseas in the first to third centuries. THE DATASET A dataset of 151 British brooches was compiled, although only particular examples have been selected in this paper to illustrate their interpretive potential. The data consist of 74 brooches found on nineteen sites in Germania Inferior and on seven sites in northern Gallia Belgica (fig. 1) and of 77 brooches found on 28 sites in Germania Superior and on four sites in Germania Libera, five without provenance (fig. 2). The initial dataset for the whole Roman Empire, although with some mistakes and omissions, was compiled by F. Morris from the University of Oxford (Morris 2010: Appendix 6). To the original dataset the author of the present paper added 43 brooches found on nineteen sites. The research is ongoing and more brooches are expected to be added. There are at least four major brooche types that originated from and were manufactured in Britannia: trumpets, headstuds, dragonesque and umbonate, and their various derivatives. There are thoughtful and detailed discussions on these and other types (see e.g. Hattatt 1989, Snape 1993 and Bayley and Butcher 2004). While these types appear to be relatively numerous in Britain, overseas they are found in limited numbers: one or at most three percent of the total number found on any given site (see Böhme 1972: 47; Grünewald 1990: 58). In this paper the low occurrence of British brooches is used as an indication that the brooches were brought overseas, to Germania Superior and Inferior in particular, as part of the personal possessions of individuals travelling from Britannia. In other words, brooches are personal items used to secure clothing and this purpose was the main reason why brooches ‘travelled’. Because of this, brooches are in less danger of being regarded as trade items, as opposed to pottery, although a small-scale trade in exotic metal objects such as brooches cannot be ruled out. This paper consists of two major sections, which discuss the distribution of brooches in Germania Inferior and northern parts of Gallia Belgica, and brooch distribution in Germania Superior. It finishes with some concluding remarks. 52 THE TALES OF BRITISH BROOCHES IN GERMANIA INFERIOR AND NORTHERN PARTS OF GALLIA BELGICA A total of 74 British brooches was found in Germania Inferior and northern parts of Gallia Belgica (fig. 1). The research, apart from the archeological data, also uses epigraphic sources in order to understand how and with whom the British brooches reached the Continent. In this section, epigraphy will be used to trace the people who brought some of the 74 British brooches to Germania Inferior. The largest number of British brooches comes from Nijmegen: 24 pieces. The occurrence of British brooches at various sites in Nijmegen can be connected with the presence of the British detachment (vexillatio Britannica) and Legio IX Hispana, which is believed to have been transferred from its British base in York to Nijmegen c. 121 (Farnum 2005: 21). The presence of both the detachment and the legion is known from 133 tile stamps (130 VEXBRIT and three LEGVIIIIHISP stamps), which were found at various locations on the site of the legionary fortress at the Hunerberg (Brunsting and Steures 1995:91). The name of the detachment indicates it was formed with soldiers of auxiliary units and legions originally stationed in Britannia. Therefore, with the transfer of both units to Nijmegen, the soldiers could have taken the brooches produced in Britannia as part of their personal possessions, for the simple reason that they needed these brooches to fasten their cloaks. Another site where plenty British brooches were found is Cologne: fifteen pieces. From the epigraphic record it is known that three Britons served in two auxiliary units and in the German fleet: the classis Germanica (AE 1956; 249; AE 2003; 1218; CIL XIII 8314). It should be pointed out that these three British soldiers did not necessarily bring these fifteen brooches to the site; we are probably dealing with a group of possible British emigrants serving in one of the units or in the German fleet. It seems reasonable to discuss in detail the presence of three British recruits in the mentioned units and the German fleet. The auxiliary units, those of cohors VI Ingenuorum and cohors III Breucorum, were never garrisoned in Cologne, as shown by the epigraphic record (Spaul 2000: 34, 321). It has been suggested elsewhere (AE 2003, 1218 note on p. 395) that the soldier from civitas Trinovantum (present Sussex in England) recruited in cohors III Breucorum (AE 2003: 1218) was in Cologne for some administrative or private business. The presence of a ‘British citizen’ in cohors VI Ingenuorum (AE 1959: 249) in a unit of Roman citizens who had joined voluntarily suggests that he also was a volunteer and could have been just a solitary person of British origin. The third British soldier, who was from the Dumnonians, served in the German fleet (CIL XIII 8314). It has been suggested that the majority of the soldiers serving in this fleet after the Batavian revolt came from different provinces of the Roman Empire, including Britannia (Konen 2000: 332–333). It is therefore possible that there were more recruits from British tribes. The fleet garrison was stationed at Alteburg, where three Romano-British brooches were found (Exner 1939:102, no 21; 115, no 57). It is highly plausible, thus, that the group of British recruits serving in the German fleet and not British-born soldiers from two other auxiliary units can be considered as likely candidates for bringing British-made brooches to Cologne. A British auxiliary unit is attested on three tile stamps from the forts at Vechten and Xanten: cohors II Britannorum (Spaul 2000: 198). This unit was part of the army in Germania Inferior prior to 100 and is also mentioned on the military diploma from Elst of 98, where the engraver mistakenly ‘renamed’ the unit into cohors II Brittonum (Haalebos 2000: 54; Tentea and Matei-Popescu 2002-2003: 276). British brooches were found only in Xanten, although one brooch was located on the site of the civilian settlement De Horden near the fort at Wijk bij Duurstede. Further analysis of the history of both forts revealed that brooches could have arrived at the site not with members of this British unit, but with soldiers from other auxiliary units. In Wijk bij Duurstede, ala I Thracum was stationed between 70 and 83 (Bogaers 1974: 198). The unit was redeployed here after its service in Britannia (Jarrett 1994: 44). At the fort of Kalkar-Altkalkar, north of Xanten, a needle was found which has parallels in Britannia (Boelicke et al. 2000: 32). This British needle may have belonged to a member of the ala Classiana, which served in Britannia prior to its transfer overseas (Jarrett 1994: 42). The distribution map (fig. 1) tells us that some brooches are concentrated on sites inhabited by different tribal entities: in civitas Menapiorum (Destelbergen and Waasmunster); in civitas Nerviorum (Velzeke and Hofstade); in civitas Tungrorum (Tongeren, Maastricht and Heerlen) and in civitas Batavorum (Tiel, Zetten, Oosterhout, a roadside grave on the road to Cuijk). It should not come as a surprise that the members of all civitates mentioned served in their own auxiliary units at various locations in Britannia. Nervii were enrolled into six cohorts, of which five are known to have been stationed at forts along Hadrian’s Wall and the Antonine Wall (Jarrett 1994: 63-64; Spaul 2000: 217-224). Cohors I Menapiorum is known from three military diplomas issued for the army of Britannia and from various leather fragments found at fort Vindolanda 53 (Jarrett 1994: 62; Spaul 2000: 185). Two cohorts raised from Tungrians, I and II, are attested in Britannia in forts along Hadrian’s Wall (Jarrett 1994: 48-50; Spaul 2000: 225-230). Four Batavian cohorts are also attested on military diplomas, various inscriptions and on Vindolanda writing tablets as being part of the army of Britannia (Jarrett 1994: 54-56; Spaul 2000: 209-216). The occurrence of British brooches on the sites of these civitates can be connected with returning veterans, who after 25 years of service in the army of Britannia returned to their homelands and brought as part of their personal possessions the objects they used daily, amongst which brooches. To summarise, three major groups of people can be held responsible for bringing some British-made brooches into Germania Inferior: firstly Britons who served in the British detachment (vexillatio Britannica), several auxiliary units and in the German fleet (classis Germanica); secondly soldiers who served in the auxiliary units stationed in Britannia prior to their transfer to this province; and thirdly veterans returning to their homelands. Does the same apply to the province of Germania Superior or may other groups of people have contributed to the presence of 77 British-made brooches there? THE TALES OF BRITISH BROOCHES FROM GERMANIA SUPERIOR A total of 77 British brooches was found at various sites in Germania Superior (fig. 2). The majority of the brooches produced in the late first century is concentrated in the Taunus-Wetterau region (the limes forts of Zugmantel and Saalburg; forts-turned-civitates situated in Wetterau region Wiesbaden, Hofheim, Praunheim, Heddernheim, Heldenbergen; Mainz region); the Mayen-Koblenz region (Mayen, Kobern, Eich and Weissenthurm) and the area of civitas Vangionum (Bad Kreuznach, Flonheim, Alzey and Worms). The majority of the second- and third-century types is concentrated mostly in the agri decumani area, between the rivers Rhine and Main. In the Taunus-Wetterau frontier zone 33 British brooches of late first-century types were located, while there is only one inscription, from barracks at fort Saalburg (contubernium Brittonis; CIL XIII 11954a), attesting the presence of a small British unit in the area (Böhme 1970:5-7). The context in which the brooches were found is unknown for most sites, but at Zugmantel, Saalburg and Heldenbergen they were found in the layers that date to the final phase of the Chattian wars, 83–85. It has been suggested on the basis of one inscription (CIL XIV 3612) that the detachment from Legio IX was taken from the army of Agricola in Britannia to participate in this war of Domitian (Schönberger 1969: 158). Mainz was the main legionary fortress from where the campaign was launched and the forts in the Wetterau plain were marching or temporary camps built to accommodate the advanced army (Schönberger 1969: 158). If the assumption that the detachment from Legio IX was present in the area during the Chattian wars is correct, then it can be proposed that the soldiers from this British detachment brought the British brooches to the area. What happened with the detachment after the wars ended is unknown, but it has been proposed that the soldiers were redeployed elsewhere. It seems reasonable to suggest that the detachment was sent to construct a new stretch of limes, and the presence of thirteen British-made brooches from two new forts on this frontier, Zugmantel and Saalburg, can support this idea. The second area is the Mayen-Koblenz region, where five late first-century brooches were found. Both Mayen and Weissenthurm were regional craft centres (Cüppers 1990: 471, 662), Mayen being famous for its raw materials, basalt and tuff, used for production of tombstones and sarcophagi; Weissenthurm for its pottery kilns. It is notable that another British brooch was found at Rheinzabern, an inter-provincial pottery production centre. The occurrence of British brooches in the Mayen-Koblenz region and at Rheinzabern may indicate the presence of British craftsmen on an apprenticeship or continental potters returning from Britannia. It is known, for instance, that some of the potters working at Colchester had previously operated in continental factories, such as Sinzig, situated nor far away from the Weissenthurm pottery kilns (Storey et al. 1989). Another area in Germania Superior where British brooches were found in abundance is that of civitas Vangionum: five pieces are known from there. From various military diplomas and inscriptions it is known that cohors I Vangionum served in Britannia in the second century (Jarrett 1994, p. 50; Spaul 2000, pp. 249251). This is an example for Germania Superior of British brooches brought to the area on clothes or as personal possessions of returning veterans. The British brooches, produced after the mid-second century period (based on their stylistic features), are concentrated mostly in the area between the rivers Rhine and Main on the Roman road running from Gernsheim via Darmstadt to Stockstadt and the Odenwald-Neckar limes (Baatz 1982: 243). On the latter frontier, four British brooches were found on sites that were occupied by British numeri units: late first-century 54 types found at Obernburg and Hesselbach, where the units were stationed c. 100 (Reuter 1999: 456, 458–459); two second-century types were found at Köngen and Stockstadt where epigraphy confirms the presence of British numeri in the mid-second century (Reuter 1999: 449; CIL XIII 6629, 6642). It is doubtful that the soldiers who were recruited c. 100 were the same soldiers 45 years later. Presumably locals would have made up the deficit: the units were named Brittonum but there were no Britons in them. The occurrence of second-century British-made brooches on the frontier itself and on the road, the major supply route to the Odenwald-Neckar frontier c. 145, suggests another story. It is plausible that there were two phases of recruitment of Britons into the British numeri: the first phase c. 100, when the first forts on the Odenwald frontier were constructed, and the second phase when the decision was made to rebuild these forts into stone, in 145. The second phase coincides with the campaigns of Lollius Urbicus in 140 in southern Scotland. It has long been disputed (Reuter 1999: 385) if indeed after these campaigns part of the local population was transferred overseas to the Odenwald-Neckar frontier. The occurrence of mid second-century British brooches on the sites of the forts supports this assumption and indicates that the roads were used for troop transportation, i.e. these were the routes the recruits may have taken. To summarise, when a comparison is made with the occurrence of British brooches in Germania Inferior, it can be proposed that some of the brooches reached Germania Superior with the same groups (returning veterans and soldiers serving in British detachment and numeri units) and through the same mechanism (troop movements in preparation for war). The major difference between the two provinces is that on sites in Germania Superior the possible presence of British craftsmen was detected, while in Germania Inferior there are no data leading to the same conclusion. Moreover, in Germania Superior the occurrence of British brooches typical for mid-second-century suggest there was indeed a population transfer from Britannia to the Odenwald-Neckar limes in the second century. CONCLUSION AND SOME REMARKS An article of this length can only discuss a relatively small amount of evidence. The brooches discussed here and the sites where they were found are only the tip of the iceberg. Each site and each brooch provides various ‘tales’ about the people who arrived on the continent from Britannia: women who followed their military partners and offspring of British emigrants, just to name a few. Moreover, the trade connections between the two provinces and Britannia were left out in the present paper, although it should not be excluded that some of the brooches reached their destinations as a result of trade (as an example, brooches found at Voorburg can be proposed [M. Driessen, personal comment]). Only a fraction of the data was selected for analysis, but it is nonetheless illustrative of how and with whom British brooches reached the provinces discussed. The majority of the brooches, be they produced in the late first or mid second century, arrived in the provinces on the clothes of or as part of personal possessions of people who spent some time in Britain. It can be argued that some of these people were of British descent. This invites us to discuss the question of the projection of ethnic identity through the wearing of special ethnic markers, in this case brooches. While this question is of major significance for the present research, the limited scope and space of this article do not allow a full discussion; this will be done in the forthcoming publications of my PhD research. This article can be regarded as a starting point for our understanding that ‘brooches are more than meets the eyes’, the insight that those brooches can tell tales. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank Mark Driessen for reading the initial draft of this paper and for the comments. I wish to thank F. Morris for access to his unpublished dissertation, J. de Bruin for providing me with information on the British brooches from Alphen aan den Rijn and Naaldwijk, M. Driessen and S. Hoss for brooches from Voorburg, S. Heeren for brooches from Tiel and P. van den Broeke for a brooch from Oosterhout. Final thanks go to M. Wilkinson-van Hoek of Fine Line Archaeological Language Services for copy-editing the text. Any mistakes remain my own. ABBREVIATIONS AE = L'Année Epigraphique, Paris 1888– CIL = Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum BIBLIOGRAPHY J. Bayley and S. Butcher, Roman Brooches in Britain: A Technological and Typological Study based on the Richborough Collection, London 2004. 55 U. Boelicke, U. Brandl and B. Liesen, Antiken der Sammlung Gerhard Alsters. Urgeschichtliche und römische Funde, Uedem 2000. D. Baatz, Die Römer in Hessen, Stuttgart 1982. D. Baatz, Der Römische Limes. Archäologische Ausflüge zwischen Rhein und Donau, Berlin 2000. J. Bogaers, “Thracische Hulptroepen inGermania Inferior”, Oudheidkundige Mededelingen 55 (1974), pp. 198-220. A. Böhme, “Englische Fibeln aus den Kastellen Saalburg und Zugmantel“, Saalburg Jahrbuch 27 (1970), pp. 5-20. H. Brunsting and D. Steures, “De Baksteenstempels van Romeins Nijmegen, I. Opgravingen castra 1950 1967. Opgravingen Kops Plateau c.a. 1986 -1994”, Oudheidkundige Mededelingen 75 (1995), pp. 85117. A. Croom, Roman clothing and fashion, Stroud 2002. H. Cüppers, Die Römer in Rheinland-Pfalz, Stuttgart 1990. K. Exner, “Die provinzialrömischen Emailfibeln der Rheinlande“, Bericht der Römisch-Germanischen Kommission 29 (1939), pp. 31–123. M. Grünewald, Der Römische Nordfriedhof in Worms. Funde von der Mainzer Strasse, Worms 1990. M. Jarrett, “Non-legionary troops in Roman Britain: part one, the units”, Britannia 25 (1994), pp. 35-77. S. Jundi and J.D. Hill, “Brooches and identities in first century AD Britain: more than meets the eye?”, in: C. Forcey, J. Hawthrone and R. Witcher (eds), TRAC 97. Proceedings of the seventh annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference Nottingham 1997, Oxford 1997, pp. 125-137. J.K. Haalebos, “Traian und die Hilfstruppen am Niederrhein. Ein militärdiplom des Jahres 98 n. Chr. aus Elst in de Over-Betuwe (Niederlande)“, Saalburg Jahrbuch 50 (2000), pp. 31-72. R. Hattatt, Ancient brooches and other artefacts, Oxford 1989. H.C. Konen, Classis Germanica. Die römische Rheinflotte im 1. – 3. Jahrbundert n. Chr., St. Katharinen 2000. F. Morris, North Sea and Channel connectivity during the Late Iron Age and Roman period (175/150 BC-AD 409). Oxford 2010. M. Reuter, “Studien zu den numeri des Romischen Heeres in der Middlerem Kaiserzeit“, Bericht der RomischGermanischen Kommission 80 (1999), pp. 359-569. H. Schönberger, “The Roman frontier in Germany: an archaeological survey“, Journal of Roman Studies 59 (1969), pp. 144-197. M.E. Snape, Roman brooches from North Britain. A classification and a catalogue of brooches from sites on the Stanegate, Oxford 1993. J. Spaul, Cohors2. The evidence for and a short history of the auxiliary infantry of the Imperial Roman army, Oxford 2000. J.M.V. Storey, R.P. Symonds, F.A. Hart, D.M. Smith and J.N. Walsh, “A chemical investigation of „Colchester“ samian by means of inductively-coupled plasma emission spectrometry”, Journal of Roman pottery studies 2 (1989), pp. 33-43. O. Tentea and F. Matei-Popescu, “Alae et cohorts Daciae et Moesiae. A review and updating of J. Spaul’s Ala2 and Cohors2”, Acta Musei Napocensis 39-40 (2002-2003), pp. 259-297. AUTHOR Tatiana Ivleva (MA), born in 1982 in Moscow, is currently a PhD candidate at the University of Leiden. Her dissertation is entitled The Migration in the Roman Empire: a British case (working title). It is supervised by Prof. Dr. J. Bintliff (promotor) and Dr. B. van der Meer (co-promotor). Tatiana Ivleva graduated in 2004 in History (BA with honors) at the Russian State Humanitarian University in Moscow and in 2006 in Mediterranean Archaeology (MA) at the University of Leiden. SUMMARY This article's main intention is to address the issue that the brooches ‘are more than meets the eye’. 151 British-made brooches were found at various sites in two neighboring provinces, that of Germania Superior and Inferior. Their distribution suggests that at least some of them were brought on the clothes of people who arrived from Britannia. Through comparison between epigraphic and archaeological evidence, it was established that the majority of the objects discussed reached both provinces with the same groups (returning veterans, soldiers serving in British detachment and auxiliary units) and through the same mechanism (troop movements in preparation for war). 56 PLAAT 7 Afbeeldingen bij Tatiana Ivleva - Brooches tell tales: British-made brooches in Germania Inferior and Superior as indicators of the presence of British emigrants FIG. 1. DISTRIBUTION OF ROMANO-BRITISH BROOCHES BELGICA. MAP AFTER HAALEBOS 2000, 31, FIG. 1. IN GERMANIA INFERIOR AND THE NORTHERN PART OF GALLIA FIG. 2. DISTRIBUTION OF ROMANO-BRITISH BROOCHES IN GERMANIA SUPERIOR (FIVE WITHOUT PROVENANCE). MAP AFTER BAATZ 2000. 

51 BROOCHES TELL TALES: BRITISH-MADE BROOCHES IN GERMANIA INFERIOR AND SUPERIOR AS INDICATORS OF THE PRESENCE OF BRITISH EMIGRANTS Tatiana Ivleva “The main intention of this paper is to suggest that brooches can be looked at in new ways, to provide a fuller and, possibly, different perspective on social change”. Thus begins an article by Jundi and Hill (1997: 125) on the change of the roles of brooches in Late Iron Age and early Roman Britain. It neatly summarizes the main intention of the present paper, which follows the idea proposed by the same authors that “brooches are more than meets the eye”. Take any major archaeological report on Roman sites and it will be obvious that the majority of the illustrated pages are given over to the publication of pottery found on a site, followed by a broad discussion on the significance of these finds. Brooches, by contrast, are usually given two or three illustrated pages, followed by a brief summary of the types. The majority of the excavators regard the brooches as relatively simple objects: a mere dress accessory, essential for fastening clothes (Croom 2002: 73). While this is true, one must realize that brooches were not only used for holding clothes together, but were also used to send different types of messages, containing information on “ethnicity, age, gender and group membership” (Jundi and Hill 1997: 125). In other words, being personal items, brooches were worn to be seen; they conveyed meaning and sent signals about the owners (Jundi and Hill 1998: 132). This makes the purpose of the present paper to decipher these very signals, to give brooches an opportunity to tell their tales. As a case study, British-made brooches found overseas, mainly in the two neighbouring provinces of Germania Inferior and Superior, were selected. The reason behind the choice of British-made brooches lies in the PhD research conducted by the author of the present paper, which aims to find British emigrants who moved overseas in the first to third centuries. THE DATASET A dataset of 151 British brooches was compiled, although only particular examples have been selected in this paper to illustrate their interpretive potential. The data consist of 74 brooches found on nineteen sites in Germania Inferior and on seven sites in northern Gallia Belgica (fig. 1) and of 77 brooches found on 28 sites in Germania Superior and on four sites in Germania Libera, five without provenance (fig. 2). The initial dataset for the whole Roman Empire, although with some mistakes and omissions, was compiled by F. Morris from the University of Oxford (Morris 2010: Appendix 6). To the original dataset the author of the present paper added 43 brooches found on nineteen sites. The research is ongoing and more brooches are expected to be added. There are at least four major brooche types that originated from and were manufactured in Britannia: trumpets, headstuds, dragonesque and umbonate, and their various derivatives. There are thoughtful and detailed discussions on these and other types (see e.g. Hattatt 1989, Snape 1993 and Bayley and Butcher 2004). While these types appear to be relatively numerous in Britain, overseas they are found in limited numbers: one or at most three percent of the total number found on any given site (see Böhme 1972: 47; Grünewald 1990: 58). In this paper the low occurrence of British brooches is used as an indication that the brooches were brought overseas, to Germania Superior and Inferior in particular, as part of the personal possessions of individuals travelling from Britannia. In other words, brooches are personal items used to secure clothing and this purpose was the main reason why brooches ‘travelled’. Because of this, brooches are in less danger of being regarded as trade items, as opposed to pottery, although a small-scale trade in exotic metal objects such as brooches cannot be ruled out. This paper consists of two major sections, which discuss the distribution of brooches in Germania Inferior and northern parts of Gallia Belgica, and brooch distribution in Germania Superior. It finishes with some concluding remarks. 52 THE TALES OF BRITISH BROOCHES IN GERMANIA INFERIOR AND NORTHERN PARTS OF GALLIA BELGICA A total of 74 British brooches was found in Germania Inferior and northern parts of Gallia Belgica (fig. 1). The research, apart from the archeological data, also uses epigraphic sources in order to understand how and with whom the British brooches reached the Continent. In this section, epigraphy will be used to trace the people who brought some of the 74 British brooches to Germania Inferior. The largest number of British brooches comes from Nijmegen: 24 pieces. The occurrence of British brooches at various sites in Nijmegen can be connected with the presence of the British detachment (vexillatio Britannica) and Legio IX Hispana, which is believed to have been transferred from its British base in York to Nijmegen c. 121 (Farnum 2005: 21). The presence of both the detachment and the legion is known from 133 tile stamps (130 VEXBRIT and three LEGVIIIIHISP stamps), which were found at various locations on the site of the legionary fortress at the Hunerberg (Brunsting and Steures 1995:91). The name of the detachment indicates it was formed with soldiers of auxiliary units and legions originally stationed in Britannia. Therefore, with the transfer of both units to Nijmegen, the soldiers could have taken the brooches produced in Britannia as part of their personal possessions, for the simple reason that they needed these brooches to fasten their cloaks. Another site where plenty British brooches were found is Cologne: fifteen pieces. From the epigraphic record it is known that three Britons served in two auxiliary units and in the German fleet: the classis Germanica (AE 1956; 249; AE 2003; 1218; CIL XIII 8314). It should be pointed out that these three British soldiers did not necessarily bring these fifteen brooches to the site; we are probably dealing with a group of possible British emigrants serving in one of the units or in the German fleet. It seems reasonable to discuss in detail the presence of three British recruits in the mentioned units and the German fleet. The auxiliary units, those of cohors VI Ingenuorum and cohors III Breucorum, were never garrisoned in Cologne, as shown by the epigraphic record (Spaul 2000: 34, 321). It has been suggested elsewhere (AE 2003, 1218 note on p. 395) that the soldier from civitas Trinovantum (present Sussex in England) recruited in cohors III Breucorum (AE 2003: 1218) was in Cologne for some administrative or private business. The presence of a ‘British citizen’ in cohors VI Ingenuorum (AE 1959: 249) in a unit of Roman citizens who had joined voluntarily suggests that he also was a volunteer and could have been just a solitary person of British origin. The third British soldier, who was from the Dumnonians, served in the German fleet (CIL XIII 8314). It has been suggested that the majority of the soldiers serving in this fleet after the Batavian revolt came from different provinces of the Roman Empire, including Britannia (Konen 2000: 332–333). It is therefore possible that there were more recruits from British tribes. The fleet garrison was stationed at Alteburg, where three Romano-British brooches were found (Exner 1939:102, no 21; 115, no 57). It is highly plausible, thus, that the group of British recruits serving in the German fleet and not British-born soldiers from two other auxiliary units can be considered as likely candidates for bringing British-made brooches to Cologne. A British auxiliary unit is attested on three tile stamps from the forts at Vechten and Xanten: cohors II Britannorum (Spaul 2000: 198). This unit was part of the army in Germania Inferior prior to 100 and is also mentioned on the military diploma from Elst of 98, where the engraver mistakenly ‘renamed’ the unit into cohors II Brittonum (Haalebos 2000: 54; Tentea and Matei-Popescu 2002-2003: 276). British brooches were found only in Xanten, although one brooch was located on the site of the civilian settlement De Horden near the fort at Wijk bij Duurstede. Further analysis of the history of both forts revealed that brooches could have arrived at the site not with members of this British unit, but with soldiers from other auxiliary units. In Wijk bij Duurstede, ala I Thracum was stationed between 70 and 83 (Bogaers 1974: 198). The unit was redeployed here after its service in Britannia (Jarrett 1994: 44). At the fort of Kalkar-Altkalkar, north of Xanten, a needle was found which has parallels in Britannia (Boelicke et al. 2000: 32). This British needle may have belonged to a member of the ala Classiana, which served in Britannia prior to its transfer overseas (Jarrett 1994: 42). The distribution map (fig. 1) tells us that some brooches are concentrated on sites inhabited by different tribal entities: in civitas Menapiorum (Destelbergen and Waasmunster); in civitas Nerviorum (Velzeke and Hofstade); in civitas Tungrorum (Tongeren, Maastricht and Heerlen) and in civitas Batavorum (Tiel, Zetten, Oosterhout, a roadside grave on the road to Cuijk). It should not come as a surprise that the members of all civitates mentioned served in their own auxiliary units at various locations in Britannia. Nervii were enrolled into six cohorts, of which five are known to have been stationed at forts along Hadrian’s Wall and the Antonine Wall (Jarrett 1994: 63-64; Spaul 2000: 217-224). Cohors I Menapiorum is known from three military diplomas issued for the army of Britannia and from various leather fragments found at fort Vindolanda 53 (Jarrett 1994: 62; Spaul 2000: 185). Two cohorts raised from Tungrians, I and II, are attested in Britannia in forts along Hadrian’s Wall (Jarrett 1994: 48-50; Spaul 2000: 225-230). Four Batavian cohorts are also attested on military diplomas, various inscriptions and on Vindolanda writing tablets as being part of the army of Britannia (Jarrett 1994: 54-56; Spaul 2000: 209-216). The occurrence of British brooches on the sites of these civitates can be connected with returning veterans, who after 25 years of service in the army of Britannia returned to their homelands and brought as part of their personal possessions the objects they used daily, amongst which brooches. To summarise, three major groups of people can be held responsible for bringing some British-made brooches into Germania Inferior: firstly Britons who served in the British detachment (vexillatio Britannica), several auxiliary units and in the German fleet (classis Germanica); secondly soldiers who served in the auxiliary units stationed in Britannia prior to their transfer to this province; and thirdly veterans returning to their homelands. Does the same apply to the province of Germania Superior or may other groups of people have contributed to the presence of 77 British-made brooches there? THE TALES OF BRITISH BROOCHES FROM GERMANIA SUPERIOR A total of 77 British brooches was found at various sites in Germania Superior (fig. 2). The majority of the brooches produced in the late first century is concentrated in the Taunus-Wetterau region (the limes forts of Zugmantel and Saalburg; forts-turned-civitates situated in Wetterau region Wiesbaden, Hofheim, Praunheim, Heddernheim, Heldenbergen; Mainz region); the Mayen-Koblenz region (Mayen, Kobern, Eich and Weissenthurm) and the area of civitas Vangionum (Bad Kreuznach, Flonheim, Alzey and Worms). The majority of the second- and third-century types is concentrated mostly in the agri decumani area, between the rivers Rhine and Main. In the Taunus-Wetterau frontier zone 33 British brooches of late first-century types were located, while there is only one inscription, from barracks at fort Saalburg (contubernium Brittonis; CIL XIII 11954a), attesting the presence of a small British unit in the area (Böhme 1970:5-7). The context in which the brooches were found is unknown for most sites, but at Zugmantel, Saalburg and Heldenbergen they were found in the layers that date to the final phase of the Chattian wars, 83–85. It has been suggested on the basis of one inscription (CIL XIV 3612) that the detachment from Legio IX was taken from the army of Agricola in Britannia to participate in this war of Domitian (Schönberger 1969: 158). Mainz was the main legionary fortress from where the campaign was launched and the forts in the Wetterau plain were marching or temporary camps built to accommodate the advanced army (Schönberger 1969: 158). If the assumption that the detachment from Legio IX was present in the area during the Chattian wars is correct, then it can be proposed that the soldiers from this British detachment brought the British brooches to the area. What happened with the detachment after the wars ended is unknown, but it has been proposed that the soldiers were redeployed elsewhere. It seems reasonable to suggest that the detachment was sent to construct a new stretch of limes, and the presence of thirteen British-made brooches from two new forts on this frontier, Zugmantel and Saalburg, can support this idea. The second area is the Mayen-Koblenz region, where five late first-century brooches were found. Both Mayen and Weissenthurm were regional craft centres (Cüppers 1990: 471, 662), Mayen being famous for its raw materials, basalt and tuff, used for production of tombstones and sarcophagi; Weissenthurm for its pottery kilns. It is notable that another British brooch was found at Rheinzabern, an inter-provincial pottery production centre. The occurrence of British brooches in the Mayen-Koblenz region and at Rheinzabern may indicate the presence of British craftsmen on an apprenticeship or continental potters returning from Britannia. It is known, for instance, that some of the potters working at Colchester had previously operated in continental factories, such as Sinzig, situated nor far away from the Weissenthurm pottery kilns (Storey et al. 1989). Another area in Germania Superior where British brooches were found in abundance is that of civitas Vangionum: five pieces are known from there. From various military diplomas and inscriptions it is known that cohors I Vangionum served in Britannia in the second century (Jarrett 1994, p. 50; Spaul 2000, pp. 249251). This is an example for Germania Superior of British brooches brought to the area on clothes or as personal possessions of returning veterans. The British brooches, produced after the mid-second century period (based on their stylistic features), are concentrated mostly in the area between the rivers Rhine and Main on the Roman road running from Gernsheim via Darmstadt to Stockstadt and the Odenwald-Neckar limes (Baatz 1982: 243). On the latter frontier, four British brooches were found on sites that were occupied by British numeri units: late first-century 54 types found at Obernburg and Hesselbach, where the units were stationed c. 100 (Reuter 1999: 456, 458–459); two second-century types were found at Köngen and Stockstadt where epigraphy confirms the presence of British numeri in the mid-second century (Reuter 1999: 449; CIL XIII 6629, 6642). It is doubtful that the soldiers who were recruited c. 100 were the same soldiers 45 years later. Presumably locals would have made up the deficit: the units were named Brittonum but there were no Britons in them. The occurrence of second-century British-made brooches on the frontier itself and on the road, the major supply route to the Odenwald-Neckar frontier c. 145, suggests another story. It is plausible that there were two phases of recruitment of Britons into the British numeri: the first phase c. 100, when the first forts on the Odenwald frontier were constructed, and the second phase when the decision was made to rebuild these forts into stone, in 145. The second phase coincides with the campaigns of Lollius Urbicus in 140 in southern Scotland. It has long been disputed (Reuter 1999: 385) if indeed after these campaigns part of the local population was transferred overseas to the Odenwald-Neckar frontier. The occurrence of mid second-century British brooches on the sites of the forts supports this assumption and indicates that the roads were used for troop transportation, i.e. these were the routes the recruits may have taken. To summarise, when a comparison is made with the occurrence of British brooches in Germania Inferior, it can be proposed that some of the brooches reached Germania Superior with the same groups (returning veterans and soldiers serving in British detachment and numeri units) and through the same mechanism (troop movements in preparation for war). The major difference between the two provinces is that on sites in Germania Superior the possible presence of British craftsmen was detected, while in Germania Inferior there are no data leading to the same conclusion. Moreover, in Germania Superior the occurrence of British brooches typical for mid-second-century suggest there was indeed a population transfer from Britannia to the Odenwald-Neckar limes in the second century. CONCLUSION AND SOME REMARKS An article of this length can only discuss a relatively small amount of evidence. The brooches discussed here and the sites where they were found are only the tip of the iceberg. Each site and each brooch provides various ‘tales’ about the people who arrived on the continent from Britannia: women who followed their military partners and offspring of British emigrants, just to name a few. Moreover, the trade connections between the two provinces and Britannia were left out in the present paper, although it should not be excluded that some of the brooches reached their destinations as a result of trade (as an example, brooches found at Voorburg can be proposed [M. Driessen, personal comment]). Only a fraction of the data was selected for analysis, but it is nonetheless illustrative of how and with whom British brooches reached the provinces discussed. The majority of the brooches, be they produced in the late first or mid second century, arrived in the provinces on the clothes of or as part of personal possessions of people who spent some time in Britain. It can be argued that some of these people were of British descent. This invites us to discuss the question of the projection of ethnic identity through the wearing of special ethnic markers, in this case brooches. While this question is of major significance for the present research, the limited scope and space of this article do not allow a full discussion; this will be done in the forthcoming publications of my PhD research. This article can be regarded as a starting point for our understanding that ‘brooches are more than meets the eyes’, the insight that those brooches can tell tales. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank Mark Driessen for reading the initial draft of this paper and for the comments. I wish to thank F. Morris for access to his unpublished dissertation, J. de Bruin for providing me with information on the British brooches from Alphen aan den Rijn and Naaldwijk, M. Driessen and S. Hoss for brooches from Voorburg, S. Heeren for brooches from Tiel and P. van den Broeke for a brooch from Oosterhout. Final thanks go to M. Wilkinson-van Hoek of Fine Line Archaeological Language Services for copy-editing the text. Any mistakes remain my own. ABBREVIATIONS AE = L'Année Epigraphique, Paris 1888– CIL = Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum BIBLIOGRAPHY J. Bayley and S. Butcher, Roman Brooches in Britain: A Technological and Typological Study based on the Richborough Collection, London 2004. 55 U. Boelicke, U. Brandl and B. Liesen, Antiken der Sammlung Gerhard Alsters. Urgeschichtliche und römische Funde, Uedem 2000. D. Baatz, Die Römer in Hessen, Stuttgart 1982. D. Baatz, Der Römische Limes. Archäologische Ausflüge zwischen Rhein und Donau, Berlin 2000. J. Bogaers, “Thracische Hulptroepen inGermania Inferior”, Oudheidkundige Mededelingen 55 (1974), pp. 198-220. A. Böhme, “Englische Fibeln aus den Kastellen Saalburg und Zugmantel“, Saalburg Jahrbuch 27 (1970), pp. 5-20. H. Brunsting and D. Steures, “De Baksteenstempels van Romeins Nijmegen, I. Opgravingen castra 1950 1967. Opgravingen Kops Plateau c.a. 1986 -1994”, Oudheidkundige Mededelingen 75 (1995), pp. 85117. A. Croom, Roman clothing and fashion, Stroud 2002. H. Cüppers, Die Römer in Rheinland-Pfalz, Stuttgart 1990. K. Exner, “Die provinzialrömischen Emailfibeln der Rheinlande“, Bericht der Römisch-Germanischen Kommission 29 (1939), pp. 31–123. M. Grünewald, Der Römische Nordfriedhof in Worms. Funde von der Mainzer Strasse, Worms 1990. M. Jarrett, “Non-legionary troops in Roman Britain: part one, the units”, Britannia 25 (1994), pp. 35-77. S. Jundi and J.D. Hill, “Brooches and identities in first century AD Britain: more than meets the eye?”, in: C. Forcey, J. Hawthrone and R. Witcher (eds), TRAC 97. Proceedings of the seventh annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference Nottingham 1997, Oxford 1997, pp. 125-137. J.K. Haalebos, “Traian und die Hilfstruppen am Niederrhein. Ein militärdiplom des Jahres 98 n. Chr. aus Elst in de Over-Betuwe (Niederlande)“, Saalburg Jahrbuch 50 (2000), pp. 31-72. R. Hattatt, Ancient brooches and other artefacts, Oxford 1989. H.C. Konen, Classis Germanica. Die römische Rheinflotte im 1. – 3. Jahrbundert n. Chr., St. Katharinen 2000. F. Morris, North Sea and Channel connectivity during the Late Iron Age and Roman period (175/150 BC-AD 409). Oxford 2010. M. Reuter, “Studien zu den numeri des Romischen Heeres in der Middlerem Kaiserzeit“, Bericht der RomischGermanischen Kommission 80 (1999), pp. 359-569. H. Schönberger, “The Roman frontier in Germany: an archaeological survey“, Journal of Roman Studies 59 (1969), pp. 144-197. M.E. Snape, Roman brooches from North Britain. A classification and a catalogue of brooches from sites on the Stanegate, Oxford 1993. J. Spaul, Cohors2. The evidence for and a short history of the auxiliary infantry of the Imperial Roman army, Oxford 2000. J.M.V. Storey, R.P. Symonds, F.A. Hart, D.M. Smith and J.N. Walsh, “A chemical investigation of „Colchester“ samian by means of inductively-coupled plasma emission spectrometry”, Journal of Roman pottery studies 2 (1989), pp. 33-43. O. Tentea and F. Matei-Popescu, “Alae et cohorts Daciae et Moesiae. A review and updating of J. Spaul’s Ala2 and Cohors2”, Acta Musei Napocensis 39-40 (2002-2003), pp. 259-297. AUTHOR Tatiana Ivleva (MA), born in 1982 in Moscow, is currently a PhD candidate at the University of Leiden. Her dissertation is entitled The Migration in the Roman Empire: a British case (working title). It is supervised by Prof. Dr. J. Bintliff (promotor) and Dr. B. van der Meer (co-promotor). Tatiana Ivleva graduated in 2004 in History (BA with honors) at the Russian State Humanitarian University in Moscow and in 2006 in Mediterranean Archaeology (MA) at the University of Leiden. SUMMARY This article's main intention is to address the issue that the brooches ‘are more than meets the eye’. 151 British-made brooches were found at various sites in two neighboring provinces, that of Germania Superior and Inferior. Their distribution suggests that at least some of them were brought on the clothes of people who arrived from Britannia. Through comparison between epigraphic and archaeological evidence, it was established that the majority of the objects discussed reached both provinces with the same groups (returning veterans, soldiers serving in British detachment and auxiliary units) and through the same mechanism (troop movements in preparation for war). 56 PLAAT 7 Afbeeldingen bij Tatiana Ivleva - Brooches tell tales: British-made brooches in Germania Inferior and Superior as indicators of the presence of British emigrants FIG. 1. DISTRIBUTION OF ROMANO-BRITISH BROOCHES BELGICA. MAP AFTER HAALEBOS 2000, 31, FIG. 1. IN GERMANIA INFERIOR AND THE NORTHERN PART OF GALLIA FIG. 2. DISTRIBUTION OF ROMANO-BRITISH BROOCHES IN GERMANIA SUPERIOR (FIVE WITHOUT PROVENANCE). MAP AFTER BAATZ 2000.